Dissertation is hosted by	Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students Rhonda Christensen

Chapter 5

Discussion, Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Discussion

Several findings which were not a focal point of the three major hypotheses emerged during the data analysis phase of this study. These are addressed in this section.

Relationship of Technology Integration Education to Student Attitudes

As described in chapter 4, teachers were partitioned into integration training versus non-integration training (using May data) for the purpose of assessing the impact of various aspects of technology integration education. Surprisingly, the students of the non-integration group were higher on all seven student measures than the integration group, with five of those being significant (p<.05). Further research is needed to determine the reason for this unexpected outcome.

Impact of High or Low Teacher Perception of Computer Importance

Using the rank sum method on the importance measures I, F13 (K&M Importance), F15 (Relevance), teachers were divided into two groups by median. Students of the low importance group (2.66, n=211) were significantly higher on Empathy than students of the high importance group (2.59, n=240) at the .076 level. A comparison of the top 27% with the bottom 27% on these same three factors revealed that there were no significant differences between groups.

Examination of I (Importance) alone revealed that there were no significant differences between low and high teacher importance groups. Looking at F13 alone, there were no significant differences between low importance and high importance groups. However, looking at F15 (relevance) alone, there were three significant differences on the student measures (I, E, SC), as shown in Table 29.

Apparently, if teachers perceive that the computer is relevant to their work, then their students will see the computer as important and will also tend to have higher attitudes toward school. Note that these findings do not necessarily mean that computer use by the teacher caused the better attitudes toward school. It is conceivable, for example, that a positive teacher embraces technology and independently fosters positive attitudes toward school.

Differences in Student Attitudes by Grade Level

Using January 1997 data on the YCCI, an analysis of variance was carried out comparing student attitude measures by grade level. The trend tends to be that, as grade level increases, student attitudes toward these measures go down. This is true for all seven student attitude indices. For example, as shown in Table 30, attitudes toward school decline from a mean value of 2.45 for Grade 1 to 2.04 for Grade 5. This is consistent with YCCI findings (G.A. Knezek, et al., 1994). It is further evidence of the contention by G. Knezek, Miyashita & Sakamoto (1993) that declines which may occur in attitudes toward computers (as children grow older) are not necessarily due to a "novelty effect" toward computers (Krendl & Broihier, 1992) , but rather are part of a larger decline in attitudes toward learning in school. These trends are graphically illustrated in Figure 15.

df = 4, p<.01.

Figure 15. Students' attitudes by grade level.

Differences in Students’ Attitudes by Gender

Significant findings regarding gender emerged in the January 1997 data for Keyes, Gilbert, and Brown students. With students from all three sites combined, females were higher in empathy (p<.0001) and attitudes toward school (p<.0001). A post-hoc comparison (Scheffe) among the three schools confirmed (p<.025) that these trends held strongly for the treatment school (Keyes) and one of the comparison schools (Brown), but not for the other comparison school (Gilbert). As shown in Table 31, male/female contrasts were not significant (p<.05) for empathy or attitudes toward school at Gilbert Elementary.

The findings regarding empathy for Keyes and Brown Elementary Schools are consistent with those of the Young Children's Computer Inventory Project (Collis, et al., 1996), which examined the impact of computer use on children's attitudes in three nations. Gender differences regarding attitude toward school are new findings from the current study. The subscale of attitudes toward school was not included in the earlier study.

Social Distance as a Measure of Teacher Attitudes

A factor analysis was performed on the Teachers' Views of Technology and Teaching questionnaire, which was derived from two sources (Appendix B). Four factors were found, including confirmation of a clustering of three items created by Norris and Lumsden (1984), which together measure social distance. As shown in Table 32, these items are arranged in order from the computer being farther away--more social distance--to "embracing" the computer into one's home.

Note. Items 1,3,5 from Norris & Lumsden; Items 4 & 6 from Lichtman (1979). Factor analysis did not confirm one of Lichtman's items (Computers can teach reading).

A nonparametric correlation procedure was used to explore the relationship between social distance and selected teacher and student indices. As shown in Table 33 social distance was found to be highly correlated with student importance (I) and student empathy (E) using May 1997 student data. The social distance factor was also highly correlated with many teacher variables in May, as shown in Table 33.

n= 310

A regression analysis was carried out to determine whether social distance could serve as an indicator of teacher or student attitudes. This measurement index was included in a multiple regression analysis along with other items predicting teacher importance (Tchi), teacher enjoyment (Tchj), and student importance (I) in May. Social distance appears to be a good indicator of teacher Computer Importance (b=.75), a weaker but still significant indicator of teacher enjoyment of computers (b=.11), and a poor predictor of how important computers are perceived to be by a teacher's students.

Teachers' Views of Technology and Teaching

As described in the previous section, three additional factors were confirmed for the Teachers’ Views of Technology and Teaching instrument, in addition to social distance. They were (a) Support--how much support teachers feel from parents, administrators; (b) teaching--seems to use innovative and effective teaching techniques; (c) Open--Openness to students and teaching. Items for each factor are listed in Table 34.

Strongly loading items for Support, Teaching, and Openness were used to construct an additional measurement index for each of these factors. That is, they were used to produce three Likert subscales.

Using a multiple regression procedure on May data, these scales were found to have a significant impact on teacher enjoyment and student importance:

• Tchj2 = f(support) b=.04, p.=.01
• Tchj2 = f(tching) b=.51, p.=.00
• Tchj2 = f(open) b=.20, p.=.00
• Student I2 = f(tching) b=.85, p=.00
• Student I = f(support) b=24, p=.03.

These and other relationships are listed in Table 35.

Examining these findings as a whole, one can conclude that other teacher attitudes, and especially attitudes toward teaching, have an impact on their enjoyment of computers as well as their students' perceived importance of computers. Further research is needed to more precisely establish the direction and strength of the relationships in this area.

Relationship of Student Attitudes to Teacher Anxiety

Using anxiety measures for teachers (TchAnx, CASA, F2) and looking at the attitudinal effects on their students, many significant findings were discovered. In addition, many surprising associations were found when examining the relationship between teacher anxiety (coded as lack of anxiety) and other teacher indices. It appears from these data that teachers who are more anxious about computers have students who have more positive attitudes toward computers. These and other relationships are shown in Table 36.

The panel analyses presented in Figures 11 through 13 (see chapter 4) offer hints about the directional influences among student attitudes and teacher anxiety. They imply that classes with high ratings of Computer Importance foster high anxiety in teachers. Further research is needed to confirm or refute this implication.

Performance of Loyd and Gressard’s Computer Attitude Scale (CAS)

Loyd and Gressard’s CAS (1986) was selected as one of the "foundation instruments" for which all original items were included in the TAC, because it was judged to be the best among the existing instruments for measuring teachers' attitudes toward computers. Based on the data gathered in this study, the four CAS subscales have retained their reliabilities reasonably well, but other subscales are often better indicators of changes in teachers' attitudes and their relationships to the attitudes of their students. In particular, F2 appears to be a better measure of teacher anxiety than does CASA.

Performance of Young Children’s Computer Inventory Questionnaire

The Young Children's' Computer Inventory (YCCI) 3-point version used in this study appears to have a 3-point ceiling that especially affects student enjoyment measures. Most of the students seemed to "top out" (have high attitudes in student enjoyment) so that there was little variance, thus making it difficult to effectively utilize this subscale in many of the analyses. Because first graders were subjects in this study, it was decided that the 3-point version was necessary due to its ease of completion. However, beyond the first-grade level, it is suggested that future researchers consider the 4-point version of the YCCI.

Other Findings Related to Research Literature

Todman and Dick (1993) reported on studies that presented teachers' attitudes toward computers as an important factor affecting children's experiences with computers at school. In their review of the literature, they identified a study by Smith (1987) that found a strong negative relationship between attitudes of children and their teachers. They interpreted these findings as meaning that teachers' self-confidence with computers decreased as their students' confidence increased, due to increased use on the part of the students. These findings could equally well be interpreted in the other direction; that is, as teachers are more confident, their students are more intimidated.

In this study a similar finding was seen regarding Computer Anxiety. When comparing the non-integration training group to the integration group, students of the teachers who did not have integration training were higher in their attitudes toward the seven student subscales, and five of these were significantly higher (p<.05). It appears from these data that teachers who are higher in anxiety toward computers have students who have more positive attitudes toward measured subscales when compared with teachers who report less anxiety. The reasons for these relationships are currently unknown. One hypothesis is that, perhaps, when teachers feel something is important, they exhibit more anxiety toward it, therefore passing on that sign of importance to their students. Todman and Dick (1993) hypothesized that it appears that the attitudes children bring with them to school related to their lack of experience with computers at home may influence the attitudes of their teachers. The panel analyses presented in Figures 11 -13 support a variation of the contention by Smith (1987): teachers' anxieties about computers increase because of increased perception of importance and implied increase in use by students.

Todman and Dick (1993) found clear evidence that boys were more favorably disposed toward computers than girls at the primary level but that the gap was not widening throughout the primary years. This study found few gender differences on the computer subscales at the primary level.

In addition, Todman and Dick (1993) found in their study that a negative correlation was associated with the deprivation of a school as measured by the number of students on the free and reduced meal program. They reported that, the higher the level of deprivation associated with a school, the more negative the attitudes of both teachers and pupils. This did not appear to be the case in the Irving schools, where 76.8% of the treatment school students were on free/reduced lunch whereas the comparison school with generally lower student attitudes had only 44% on free or reduced lunches. However, systematic analysis of this issue would require data from a much larger number of schools. Further examination of this question is beyond the scope of this study.

Previous researchers (G. Knezek et al., 1993; Todman & Dick, 1993) have reported finding a general tendency for children’s attitudes regarding computers to progressively decline throughout their primary school years. This study found a similar trend. However, it is not only attitudes toward computers that decline but, rather, all of the measured attitudes toward school. In fact, in this study the Computer Importance and enjoyment subscales declined at a slower rate than other indices measured. Additional research is needed to determine if there is a tendency for computer attitudes to decline, independent of the overall decline in attitudes toward school.

As reported in Chin and Hortin (1993/1994) a study by Stuckman and Knapke found that the teachers who experienced success with computers readily sought additional training to enhance their competencies. This and other studies have shown that, the more teachers use technology, the more they feel confident and comfortable in using technology for teaching.

Stuckman and Knapke also reported on other studies that have shown computer training leading to more positive attitudes toward computers. They went on to conclude that teachers' attitudes toward technology can be changed through proper staff development. They also concluded that the best inservice training programs are planned and carried out with teacher participation (i.e., needs assessment) from the beginning. Findings of the current study lend additional support to the conclusions reached by Stuckman and Knapke.

Violato et al. (1989) determined that teachers' attitudes are critical determinants of their success in feeling comfortable in the use and teaching of computers. They also concluded that these attitudes are crucial as possible determinants of students' interest and success in computer use. The current study supports this concept.

Chen (1986) posited that attitude toward computers is a function of experience with them. In Green, Kluever, Lam, Staples and Hoffman (1993) Green et al. (1986) summarized that effects of computer training for teachers generally seem to have a positive effect on some, if not all, aspects of attitudes toward computers. Green et al. (1986) reported a decrease in anxiety as familiarity with technology increased. The findings of this study are consistent with those reported by this group of researchers.

Norris and Lumsden (1984) found that educators agreed that teachers should know how to use computers in the classroom. However, they seemed to be positive toward computers as long as the function of computers is removed from their experiential level. In other words, they think they are useful for education in general but are not necessarily accepted into their own classroom for use (social distance questions). The findings of this study support this contention and further demonstrate that social distance has potential as a new indicator of teacher attitudes toward information technology.

Long ago, Loyd and Gressard suggested that computer anxiety is a function of the lack of use of computers and that with increased experience anxiety should decrease (as cited in McInerney et al. (1994). The findings of this study support that contention.

Issa and Lorentz (1990) also found that exposure to computers can cause a significant decrease in anxiety. They further recommended that attempts toward integration should not be made on a short-term basis. According to these authors, educators should be given adequate time to overcome their negative attitudinal perceptions and anxiety toward the computer. The procedures and findings of this study are consistent with the recommendations of Issa and Lorentz.

In the Lawton and Gerschner (1982) review of the literature, the authors reported that staff development is a key to success in using computers with teachers. Other researchers reported that the training should be relevant and match the users' (teachers) needs and interests. Initial selection of teacher education content for this study was conducted in a manner consistent with the recommendations of these authors.

In their study, Wilder, Mackie, and Cooper (1985) found a decreased liking of computers by students (with increased age) in K-12 students in the United States. Krendl and Broihier (1992) confirmed the findings for students in 4th through 10th grades (1992). However, G. Knezek et al. (1993) did not find technology attitude declines to be as strong as the trends for other learning-related dispositions. In this study, computer attitudes did decline by grade level (Grades 1-5), but not as severely as other attitude measurements toward school.

Marcinkiewicz and Welliver (1993) studied the levels of computer use of teachers and the process of the adoption of innovation. They concluded that teachers differ before they begin to use computers and they differ once they have begun to use them. Teachers differ in the amount of time it takes to adopt computers as well as how they use them once they are adopted. The authors suggested identifying the level of teachers' computer use as well as how or whether they progress in computer use. With this and additional information, educators can recommend the type of professional development for the teachers. For this study, technology integration education was carried out in a manner consistent with these recommendations.

The Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) (Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1979) includes a stages-of-concern questionnaire that allows for identification of seven different stages of concern. Persichitte and Bauer (1996) conducted a study of computer-based technology diffusion in the school environment. It was reported that levels within each stage of concern vary as individuals move through the change process (innovation adoption). Persichitte and Bauer strongly recommended, based on their study in this area, that a strong needs assessment as well as teachers' ability to access technology once training is complete are critical factors in the success of the adoption of technology in the classroom.

In the current study, teachers in the treatment group advanced, on the average, one stage toward full technology integration on a six-stage scale for a diffusion-innovation model. The campus made extensive efforts to enhance the computer resources available to teachers while the process was underway. All signs at the end of the period of study are positive with respect to eventual success for the treatment school in fully integrated adoption of technology in the classroom. Follow-up studies would be required to determine if the process is, one day, complete.

Summary of Findings

This study analyzed the effect of technology integration education on teachers' and students' attitudes toward information technology. Two instruments measuring similar attributes were used to assess teachers’ and students’ attitudes. Differences in pre- and post-test scores were used to determine changes that may have occurred during the course of the study. Approximately sixty teachers in an elementary school in Texas received needs-based instruction in the integration of computers in the classroom. Two similar schools in the same school district were used as the comparison groups. It was hypothesized that properly instructing teachers to use information technology in the classroom would positively affect not only their attitudes toward information technology, but also the attitudes of their students.

Three hypotheses were explored in this study. They were: (1) Needs-based technology integration education fosters positive attitudes toward information technology among elementary school classroom teachers; (2) Teacher education in needs-based technology integration combined with significant classroom utilization fosters positive student attitudes toward information technology; and (3) Positive teacher attitudes toward information technology foster positive attitudes in their students.

Subjects participating in this study consisted of elementary classroom teachers (grades 1-5) and their students in three public elementary schools in the north Texas area. The treatment group received needs-based integration education at their school throughout the school year. The education consisted of two days of intensive training at the beginning of the school year with follow-up training throughout the school year.

Analysis of the data gathered in this study indicated that: a) teachers at the treatment and comparison sites who reported having received computer integration education tended to exhibit more positive attitudes toward information technology than their non-integration counterparts; b) teachers at the treatment site changed to a greater extent in the direction of more positive attitudes than did their comparison group peers; and c) the integration education delivered at the treatment site had a significant impact on perceived Computer Importance (after controlling for frequency of use) while the impact of training at the comparison sight was negligible. These findings, taken as a whole, led to the acceptance of the hypothesis that needs-based technology integration education fosters positive attitudes toward information technology among elementary school classroom teachers.

With respect to the hypothesis that significant classroom utilization fosters positive student attitudes toward information technology, both analysis of variance and regression techniques confirmed the strong impact of the extent of teacher computer use on the attitudes of their students. Time-lag regression confirmed the existence of a probable causal path from January level of teacher integration education to May Computer Importance for their students. Evidence was also found in support of indirect paths from teacher integration education to more positive attitudes toward information technology in students.

A series of panel analyses using time-lag regression confirmed the following with respect to probable directional influences for teacher and student attitudes toward information technology: (a) Positive teacher perceptions of Computer Importance influence student perceptions of Computer Importance in a positive manner; (b) Positive teacher Computer Enjoyment influences student perceptions of Computer Importance in a positive manner; (c) Positive teacher enthusiasm (F1) influences student perception of Computer Importance in a positive manner; (d) Lack of teacher anxiety (TchAnx) influences student perception of Computer Importance in a negative manner; and (e) Higher semantic perception of computers (F7) on the part of teachers influences student perception of Computer Importance in a negative manner.

These findings, taken as a whole, led to the acceptance of the hypothesis that positive teacher attitudes toward information technology foster positive attitudes in their students. However, further research is needed to determine why certain Likert scales (such as teacher anxiety) are in the opposite direction of what might have been anticipated.

Conclusions

Dissemination of Information

According to Belkin and Robertson (1976), the purpose of information science is to facilitate the communication of information between human beings. In this study the communication of information was in the form of integration education. It appears from the measurable changes that occurred that information was transferred successfully to a significant number of teachers and students. Attitudes changed in a more positive direction and teachers increased the amount of classroom use during the school year. In addition, the teachers' skill level improved in several areas that were included in the educational development sessions. For example, knowing how to make Kid Pix slide shows to use in the classroom showed a significant change (p<.00) in skill level from August (M=1.35, SD = .57, n=23) to May (M=2.17, SD=.78, n=23), on a scale of 1 = low competence, 2 = medium, and 3 = high competence¹.

Diffusion of Innovations

According to Rogers (1983), adoption of technological innovations is dependent on a critical mass, degree of use and re-invention. In this study the critical mass moved toward adoption as shown in the Stages of Adoption questionnaire (see Figures 4 and 5). The degree of use also increased from pre to post at the treatment site, from an average of 2.7 hours per week in August 1996 to 5.5 hours per week in May 1997. Data were not collected to determine whether the teachers moved toward re-invention during this study.

Rubinyi (1989) reported the importance of a well thought-out training program and the availability of follow-up support are crucial for successful adoption. In this study, most of the teachers moved up stages of adoption during the on-going, on-site technology integration education. The average increase was 1 stage from August 1996 to May 1997.

Changes in Teacher Attitudes

Teachers responded to needs-based technology integration education with a positive change in their attitudes toward information technology. Some attitudes appear to change more quickly than others, as might be expected. For example, anxiety levels dropped quickly in the treatment group, within the first three months. Computer Importance and Computer Enjoyment were also among those attitudes changing quickly in a positive direction from August to January at the treatment site. It appears to take longer to change attributes regarding other attitudes toward computers, such as confidence and acceptance which appeared to require an entire school year (August to May) to show measurable changes. This trend is consistent with earlier findings regarding measures using the same instrument (Knezek & Christensen, 1996). In order for change to occur, there is an underlying assumption that the school administrators are supportive of technology integration as they were at all three sites in this study.

Changes in Student Attitudes

Students' attitudes were effected by teacher attitudes toward information technology in this study. Some of the linkages are direct, while other student attributes appear to be indirectly impacted by teachers' attitudes. For example there is a strong positive path from teacher training to teacher use, and from teacher use to student importance. While some effects are not directly measured, there is little doubt that the way teachers view technology effects the attitudes of their students.

There were also instances in which it appeared that student attitudes effected their teacher's attitudes. For example in the area of anxiety. Higher Computer Importance on the part of the students in January apparently fostered higher levels of teacher anxiety in May. This finding deserves to be studied in more detail with a larger sample of teachers and students.

Effect of Technology Integration Education on the Attitudes of Teachers and their Students

Technology integration education appears to be strongly related to teachers' attitudes toward computers. The direct effect on their students is weaker although present. The amount of teacher classroom use appears to have a more immediate impact on student attitudes. It can be conjectured that technology integration education increases teacher use which increases student attitudes toward computers. This thesis is supported as part of the current study, but probably warrants further study on its own.

Recommendations

Recommendations for Technology Educators

From this and other studies, it is apparent that assessing and reducing teacher anxiety is a critical factor in teachers' acceptance and use of technology. From this study, it appears that the most beneficial technology integration education occurs locally and frequently. On-site education is beneficial especially for those new to technology. It has been common in the past that teachers go to a training session only to return to their schools without the software that was taught and with a computer system that does not accommodate them in the same manner.

If it is not possible to include on-site education, a second approach might be to instruct clusters of teachers from a particular school in training based on their needs. This would at least give them a cadre to confer with when they were having difficulties.

A needs assessment that addresses what teachers know (their skill level), what they want to know and what they need to know is one of the most important planning strategies for preparing teachers to use technology in the classroom. Assessing their needs would allow instruction to be provided on a more individual basis. Often teachers are not consulted before training is provided.

It is also important to include intensive, up-front sessions as well as follow-up sessions in a technology integration education model. Teachers need time to apply what they have learned followed by new challenges or support in order to move them toward integration of technology into the classroom.

Recommendations for Technology Integration Education in Texas

Beginning in the 1998-99 school year in Texas, K-12 classroom teachers will be responsible for teaching the new Technology Applications Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). This mandate will require all classroom teachers to feel comfortable with using computers and become skilled at teaching with computers in the classroom.

Many teachers still feel anxious and apprehensive about using computers. Those seeking to train these teachers in the use of computers in the classroom may benefit from first assessing the teachers attitudes and needs. The first step for many teachers will most likely be to reduce the level of anxiety and make them feel comfortable and successful in the use of computers.

Recommendations for Future Studies

Based on the discussion above, it is recommended that future studies employ better measures for training, examine gender issues for students, study the relationship between school computer use by students and teacher anxiety; and seek more robust measures of Computer Enjoyment.

Better measures for training include defining integration education for the respondents as well as offering choices that provide a wider range of possible values for the analysis. The latter might eliminate one problem encountered in this study, which was that the data in this was skewed in a negative direction. Also in this study, respondents were allowed to select more than one choice of the type of training they had received, but there was no quantifiable measure of how much or how long ago they had received each type. Gathering this additional data might be useful in future studies.

The area of teacher anxiety and perceived student Computer Importance deserves additional longitudinal research. In this study it might have been accepted that higher teacher anxiety fosters higher positive student perceptions of Computer Importance, if data had been gathered on a one-shot basis. However, using time-lag regression, it was found that the impact appears to be in the opposite direction -- positive student attitudes toward Computer Importance influence teachers' computer anxiety. This "backwards" relationship appears to operate in a time-delayed feedback loop within the training-teaching-learning triangle. That is, training appears to foster meaningful use by teachers in the classroom, which in turn fosters student joy and later a perception of importance of computers. In addition to that, however, it also appears that greater positive perception of Computer Importance among the students in a classroom also fosters higher Computer Anxiety in their teachers. This implies that teachers need to have some mechanism at their disposal (on-going education, for example) that continues to reduce their anxiety more rapidly than the advancing skill level of their students tends to put pressure on their teachers, thus causing their anxiety level to increase. This is consistent with a common belief among practicing teachers that they must stay at least one step ahead of their students in whatever they wish to feel comfortable in teaching.

Christensen, R. (1998). Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton.