Chapter 3

The research design for this study was quasi-experimental, with one treatment group and two comparison groups (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).

**Figure 1. Research design for treatment and comparison groups**
Treatment	O1 X1 O2 X2 O3
Comparison(1)	O1 O2
Comparison(2)	O1 O2

The independent variable in this study was technology integration education. The dependent variables were the teacher attitude measures and the student attitude measures.

The Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers Questionnaire (TAC) (see Appendix D) was developed to measure teachers' attitudes in this study. The TAC was originally constructed as a 10-part composite instrument that included 284 items spanning 32 Likert subscales (Christensen & Knezek, 1996).

Six hundred and twenty-one educators in Texas, Florida, New York, and California completed the TAC during 1995-96. A factor analysis of the 284 individual items on the questionnaire, using the 621 responses, indicated that between 4 and 22 different attributes were actually measured by the items collected from the 32 previously published subscales. Examination of the factor structures for all 4-22 feasible solutions resulted in selections of 7-factor, 10-factor, and 16-factor structures as the most meaningful representations of the domain. The names assigned to the factors identified and the measurement indices produced by summing the responses to items closely related to each factor are listed in Tables 1 to 3 (G. Knezek & Christensen, 1996).

**Table 1. Internal Consistency Reliability for 7-Factor Structure of the TAC**
	Alpha	No. of Variables
F1(Enthusiasm/Enjoyment)	.98	30
F2(Anxiety)	.98	30
F3(Avoidance/Acceptance)	.90	13
F4(Email for Classroom Learning)	.95	11
F5(Negative Impact on Society)	.85	11
F6(Productivity)	.96	30
F7(KaySemantic)	.94	10

**Table 2. Internal Consistency Reliability for 10-Factor Structure of the TAC**
	Alpha	No. of Variables
F1 (Enthusiasm/Enjoyment)	.96	15
F2 (Anxiety)	.97	15
F3 (Relevance)	.91	15
F4 (Email)	.95	11
F5 (Negative Impact on Society)	.86	15
F6 (Productivity)	.95	15
F7 (KaySemantic)	.94	10
F8 (Vocation)	.93	15
F9 (Prestige)	.88	10
F10 (Gender Bias)	.81	6

**Table 3. Internal Consistency for 16-Factor Structure of the TAC**
Subscales	Alpha	No. of Variables
F1 (Enthusiasm)	.96	15
F2 (Anxiety)	.98	15
F3 (Acceptance)	.75	4
F4 (Email)	.95	11
F5 (Negative Impact on Society)	.84	10
F6 (Classroom Learning Productivity)	.90	14
F7 (KaySemantic)	.94	10
F8 (Vocation)	.92	13
F9 (Prestige)	.75	7
F10 (Teacher Productivity)	.94	14
F11 (Aversion)	.74	6
F12 (Gender Bias)	.81	6
F13 (K&M Importance)	.83	8
F14 (L&G Confidence)	.83	6
F15 (Relevance)	.89	10
F16 (P&P Importance)	.90	9

The TAC was administered as a pilot test at a district training program in Port Arthur, Texas. Complete data were collected from 91 teachers prior to and after their 6-week training sessions. (See Appendix E for a sample of the course content.) The paired data were viewed in many ways, including the originally published subscales, 7-factor, 10-factor, and 16-factor structures. Common to all views of the data was strong evidence that a reduction in anxiety about computers occurred in participants during the course of their training sessions. Equally compelling was evidence that the trainees came to perceive a more positive role for E-mail (and perhaps other information technologies) in classroom learning (G. Knezek & Christensen, 1996).

These findings were viewed as successful confirmation of the discriminant validity of the TAC. The 16-factor structure was selected for use in this study because of its comprehensiveness. Its scoring procedure is to sum the numeric values of the responses for the related items to produce a Likert or semantic differential subscale score for each factor. These subscale scores, rather than individual items, were used as the basis for the findings in this study.

The Young Children's Computer Inventory (YCCI) (see Appendix F) was used to measure students’ attitudes and dispositions toward computers on the following subscales: Computer Importance, Computer Enjoyment, Motivation/Persistence, Study Habits, Empathy, and Creative Tendencies (G.A. Knezek & Miyashita, 1993). The six subscales have been defined by Knezek and Miyashita as follows: computer importance: perceived value or significance of knowing how to use computers; computer enjoyment: amount of pleasure derived from using computers; study habits: mode of pursuing academic exercises within and outside class; empathy: a caring identification with the thoughts or feelings of others; motivation/persistence: unceasing effort; perseverance -- never giving up; and creative tendencies: inclinations toward exploring the unknown, taking individual initiative, finding unique solutions.

The YCCI is a 48-item, Likert-type self-report questionnaire. Students record their perceptions of the extent to which they agree, disagree, or are undecided for each item. The students are supervised by their teacher in a classroom environment. In the case of young children who have difficulty reading, the teacher reads the questions aloud. The scoring procedure for the YCCI is to sum the numeric values of the responses for the related items to produce six subscale scores.

Content validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity were tested in the development and refinement of the Young Children’s Computer Inventory (YCCI) (G. A. Knezek & Miyashita, 1993). In addition, the YCCI has been administered to young children in Japan, Mexico, and the U. S.

Computer use by children has been shown to improve students' attitudes toward both school and computers (Lever, Sherrod, & Bransford, 1989). Four items from the Computer/School Attitudes Survey (CSAS) (Lever et al., 1989) were given to the students to assess their attitudes toward school. These four items were added to the YCCI (see Appendix F) to compare whether attitudes toward school are influenced by technology integration education and classroom utilization by the teacher.

The CSAS has been pilot tested in two schools. Four of the items appear to measure children's attitudes toward school with good reliability. In the spring of 1996, the instrument was given to 134 second- through fifth-grade students attending parochial schools in Amarillo, Texas. The reliability for the four-item scale was .77. A similar instrument was given to 223 third- through eighth-grade students in a parochial school in Dallas, Texas. The reliability for the four-item scale was .75, which is consistent with the findings for Amarillo.

Subjects for the current study were from three different sites in Irving, Texas. One school, Keyes Elementary, was used for the treatment group, while the other schools, Gilbert Elementary and Brown Elementary served as comparison groups. The treatment group consisted of approximately 25 classroom teachers (1st -5th) and their students. Approximately 40 teachers and 650 students from Gilbert Elementary and Brown Elementary participated.

Keyes Elementary is a public school located in the Irving Independent School District (ISD). There are approximately 900 pre-K through fifth-grade students enrolled at Keyes. The population is 82% minority -- 65% Hispanic, 10% African-American, and 7% from other ethnic groups. Of the students, 76.8% are eligible for free or reduced lunches. Keyes qualifies as a Title I-funded school and also has a Chapter I reading program. Most of the computers in the school were funded by Title I. Some computers were purchased with funds from the normal school budget at Keyes, while 10 of the computers were awarded by the district to teachers through the teacher incentive program. To be eligible for a classroom computer in the district incentive program, teachers must attend an additional 18 hours of district computer inservice.

Gilbert Elementary is located near Keyes in the Irving ISD. Of the 800 students enrolled at Gilbert 71% were Hispanic, which is comparable to Keyes Elementary. The population at Gilbert includes 73% of students qualifying for free and reduced meals. Gilbert had a computer lab as well as five computers in each second- to fifth-grade classroom, four computers in first grade, and a mini-lab in Pre-K and Kindergarten.

Brown Elementary is close in proximity to Keyes in the Irving ISD. Approximately 800 K- fifth-grade students were enrolled at Brown. The ethnicity of the population included approximately 65% white, 17% Hispanic, 12% African-American, and 6% from other ethnic groups. They did not qualify as a Title I-funded school based on the 44.2% of students who received free or reduced lunches.

The TAC was administered as a pre- and posttest to the teachers at these schools. The pre-post differences were used to assess changes in attitudes that occurred during the school year.

The YCCI questionnaire was also administered as a pre- and post-test. It was given in January and in May 1997. Students' attitudes were assessed to see whether any changes occurred and whether integration-type teacher education had an effect on student attitudes toward computers.

The use of these two instruments ensured that changes in teacher and student attitudes were assessed on common grounds. Specifically, the subscales of Computer Enjoyment and Computer Importance have been validated for both students (YCCI) (G. A. Knezek, Miyashita, & Sakamoto, 1994) and teachers (TAC) (Christensen & Knezek, 1996). This enabled a more detailed examination of the causes for changes in teacher and student attitudes and the relationship between the two.

The Computer Inservice Needs Assessment was administered at Keyes prior to the first instructional session. The needs assessment was used to determine the initial self-rated classification of the learner, as well as to determine immediate and future inservice needs. The Skills Checklist (Appendix G) was administered before the 1st day of an intensive 2-day training, at the end of the 1st day, and at the end of the 2nd day as well as at the time of the TAC posttest (end of the school year). The skills checklist was used to determine weak areas as well as to track the attainment of skills taught during the training.

The Stages of Adoption of Technology (Russell, 1995) was administered at the time of the TAC pretest and posttest. In addition, the Teachers' Views of Technology and Teaching instrument was administered pre- and posttest.

Demographic information such as gender, years of experience, age, and amount and type of previous computer training was requested. The survey instrument also assessed whether computers were integrated or whether computers were taught in isolation from the curriculum. In May the teachers were also asked to estimate how many hours they used the computer in May 1997 in the classroom and also how many hours they used the computer at the beginning of the school year (August 1996). Information regarding how often computers were used in a computer lab, in the classroom, or both, was also requested from the school.

Irving Independent School District granted permission to conduct this project in its schools (see Appendix H). The schools obtained permission from the parents of the students before the student instruments were administered (see Appendix I). A request was submitted to the University of North Texas and approved for permission to use human subjects.

A needs assessment of the teachers, along with discussion with the assistant principal, helped determine the type of technology staff development that was needed at Keyes (treatment site). All staff development took place on-site at Keyes Elementary using only the software and hardware that was available to the teachers. The intensive staff development sessions in August included an opening session with general overview of some computer basics that most teachers did not feel comfortable performing. The next session that day included a hands-on activity in the labs where teachers learned how to use the computer for their professional productivity, for example newsletter templates, class rosters, etc. At the end of the first day, a short evaluation was given to the teachers which included asking them to choose which of available sessions they would like to attend the following day.

Some adjustments were necessary to accommodate the teachers in the sessions they preferred. These sessions included previewing software to use in their classrooms, teacher utility programs such as Print Shop and BannerMania, and using MicroSoft Works integration activities (in the classroom). The sessions were concurrent. Those who assisted this researcher with the training included personnel from UNT, the computer lab aide at Keyes and other district personnel such as the assistant principal.

In the afternoon, all teachers were introduced to telecommunications using the Texas Educational Network (TENET). However very little follow-up ensued due to the delay of equipment to the building. Kid Pix was also introduced with examples of integration. A hands-on session allowed teachers to produce slide shows that were based on curricula they taught.

Subsequent sessions continued every 6 to 8 weeks throughout the school year at Keyes. These sessions included choices of several break-out sessions. Some of the subsequent visits were in small grade level groupings to meet needs of grade level teams.

Although the focus of this study was technology integration education, it was also necessary to include some tool-based training to raise the skill and comfort level of some teachers before teaching them to integrate technology. The technology integration sessions included examining classroom curriculum and finding ways to integrate computer technology. Instructional sessions focused on examples of activities such as using databases for classroom comparison activities and curriculum-based telecommunications projects. For example, teachers learned how to use a spreadsheet to graph math concepts. They were shown how, as well as encouraged, to create a slide show in Kid Pix Companion. The teachers worked on projects that were appropriate for their classrooms, such as book reports and other language arts projects, and they were shown how to make simple pictographs for younger children using Kid Pix. They were expected to develop lesson plans that apply to the curriculum in their classroom. (A sample of the staff development schedule for the treatment group can be found in Appendix J.)

The structure of this training approach is consistent with other teacher training programs that have been successfully implemented in the state of Texas. For example, the Eisenhower Math/Science Program now requires a similar training schedule for all projects funded in the state of Texas (N. A. Broussard, personal communication, January 5, 1996).

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) in order to compare the different groups. SPSS is a comprehensive and integrated statistical program for data description and hypothesis testing in the social sciences (Mueller, 1986).

Descriptive statistics were used to describe the type and amount of training, number of years of experience teaching, amount of use, applications used, whether the educator has a home computer, and whether computers are used in isolation or integrated into the curriculum.

A MANOVA was done to compare the students and teachers at Keyes, Gilbert, and Brown to determine whether they were significantly different from each other in January 1997. The statistical methods used for hypothesis testing in this study are presented in the context of each hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: Needs-based technology integration education fosters positive attitudes toward information technology among elementary school classroom teachers.

**Figure 2. Questionnaire administration timeline**
	Time 1 (Aug)	Time 2 (Jan)	Time 3(May)
Keyes (treatment)	TAC-pretest	TAC -pretest	TAC - posttest
Gilbert/Brown (comparison)		TAC - pretest	TAC -posttest

Because the comparison schools were unable to gather pretest data in August 1996, only teacher data from the treatment school were gathered at that time. As shown in Figure 2, data from teachers at both treatment and comparison schools were gathered in January 1997 and May 1997. This made it possible to test the hypotheses from a posttest design perspective for August - May and a pre-post perspective for January - May.

Hypothesis 2: Teacher instruction in needs-based technology integration, combined with significant classroom utilization, fosters positive student attitudes toward information technology.

Independent Variables - Amount of use, Level of technology integration education

Hypothesis 3: Positive teacher attitudes toward information technology foster positive attitudes in their students.

A panel analysis (Markus, 1979) was used to determine probable causal relations among student and teacher attitudes. This is a form of time-lag regression analysis in which teachers' attitudes at time 2 (January) were used to predict students' attitudes at time 3 (May). The strength of this relationship was compared to how well teacher attitudes for time 2 can be predicted from student attitudes at time 1, and the stronger relationship was assumed to be the stronger causal path (see Figure 3). Panel analysis has been used for several decades to determine the impact of activities such as watching television on children's attitudes, and it has been successfully applied to studies of the impact of information technology (Sakamoto, 1994).

Figure 3. Path analysis depicting the probable causal path of teacher and student attitudes

It was hypothesized that the attitudes of the teachers who receive needs-based training should become more positive toward information technology. When teachers' attitudes become more positive and they are confident in their use of the technology, their classroom utilization should increase. The increase in positive attitudes, along with significant classroom utilization, should, over time, have a positive impact on their students' attitudes toward computers. It seems less plausible that changes in student attitudes will significantly impact the views of their teachers. Findings regarding this hypothesis are presented in chapter 4.

Christensen, R. (1998). Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton.

Dissertation is hosted by	Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students Rhonda Christensen

Chapter 3

Methodology